Research \u2014 Luke Zaphir<\/title>\n<link rel=\"preconnect\" href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\">\n<link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=DM+Sans:ital,wght@0,300;0,400;0,500;0,600;1,400&family=DM+Serif+Display:ital@0;1&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\">\n<style>\n:root{--bg:#F4F4F4;--bg-white:#FFFFFF;--text:#1F1F1F;--text-mid:#4A4A4A;--text-muted:#717171;--accent:#2A9D8F;--accent-dark:#1E7A6E;--accent-light:#E6F5F3;--border:#E0E0E0;--sans:'DM Sans',-apple-system,sans-serif;--serif:'DM Serif Display',Georgia,serif}\n*,*::before,*::after{box-sizing:border-box;margin:0;padding:0}\nhtml{scroll-behavior:smooth;font-size:16px}\nbody{background:var(--bg);color:var(--text);font-family:var(--sans);line-height:1.6;-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}\n.skip-link{position:absolute;top:-999px;left:1rem;background:var(--accent);color:#fff;padding:.5rem 1rem;font-size:.875rem;z-index:1000;border-radius:0 0 6px 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height=\"16\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\"><path d=\"M11 4H4a2 2 0 00-2 2v14a2 2 0 002 2h14a2 2 0 002-2v-7\"\/><path d=\"M18.5 2.5a2.121 2.121 0 013 3L12 15l-4 1 1-4 9.5-9.5z\"\/><\/svg>Writing<\/a>\n <a href=\"luke-contact.html\"><svg width=\"16\" height=\"16\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\"><path d=\"M4 4h16c1.1 0 2 .9 2 2v12c0 1.1-.9 2-2 2H4c-1.1 0-2-.9-2-2V6c0-1.1.9-2 2-2z\"\/><polyline points=\"22,6 12,13 2,6\"\/><\/svg>Contact<\/a>\n<\/nav>\n\n<main id=\"main\">\n\n\n<section class=\"research-hero\" aria-labelledby=\"research-h1\">\n <div class=\"research-hero-inner\">\n <div class=\"hero-eyebrow\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M2 3h6a4 4 0 014 4v14a3 3 0 00-3-3H2z\"\/><path d=\"M22 3h-6a4 4 0 00-4 4v14a3 3 0 013-3h7z\"\/><\/svg>\n Research & publications\n <\/div>\n <h1 id=\"research-h1\">Thinking carefully<br>about <em>democracy<\/em><br>and reasoning.<\/h1>\n <p class=\"research-hero-sub\">My research sits at the intersection of political philosophy, education theory, and epistemology \u2014 asking what kind of reasoning a healthy democracy actually needs, and how we develop it.<\/p>\n <div class=\"research-stats\" role=\"list\">\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">124+<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">Google Scholar citations<\/div><\/div>\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">3<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">Core research areas<\/div><\/div>\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">PhD<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">University of Queensland<\/div><\/div>\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">2024<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">UQ Teaching commendation<\/div><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<div class=\"filter-bar\" role=\"search\" aria-label=\"Filter publications\">\n <div class=\"filter-inner\">\n <span class=\"filter-label\">Filter:<\/span>\n <button class=\"filter-btn active\" onclick=\"filterPubs('all',this)\" aria-pressed=\"true\">All<\/button>\n <button class=\"filter-btn\" onclick=\"filterPubs('democracy',this)\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Democratic Education<\/button>\n <button class=\"filter-btn\" onclick=\"filterPubs('reasoning',this)\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Reasoning & Inquiry<\/button>\n <button class=\"filter-btn\" onclick=\"filterPubs('philosophy',this)\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Political Philosophy<\/button>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<section aria-labelledby=\"areas-heading\">\n <div class=\"areas-section\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Research areas<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"areas-heading\">Three interconnected questions<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:560px;margin-bottom:0\">Each area of research builds on the others \u2014 together they form a coherent project about reasoning, democracy, and education.<\/p>\n <div class=\"areas-grid\">\n <div class=\"area-card\">\n <div class=\"area-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M17 21v-2a4 4 0 00-4-4H5a4 4 0 00-4 4v2\"\/><circle cx=\"9\" cy=\"7\" r=\"4\"\/><path d=\"M23 21v-2a4 4 0 00-3-3.87\"\/><path d=\"M16 3.13a4 4 0 010 7.75\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <div class=\"area-title\">Democratic Education<\/div>\n <div class=\"area-desc\">How deliberative structures \u2014 communities of inquiry, citizens’ assemblies \u2014 build the cognitive capacities required for genuine democratic participation. Research focuses on both theory and classroom implementation.<\/div>\n <span class=\"area-count\">3 publications<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"area-card\">\n <div class=\"area-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><circle cx=\"12\" cy=\"12\" r=\"10\"\/><path d=\"M9.09 9a3 3 0 015.83 1c0 2-3 3-3 3\"\/><line x1=\"12\" y1=\"17\" x2=\"12.01\" y2=\"17\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <div class=\"area-title\">Reasoning & Inquiry<\/div>\n <div class=\"area-desc\">What does good reasoning actually look like in practice? Exploring rationality, bias, prejudice, and how explicit instruction in inquiry methods can develop citizens’ ability to think more honestly.<\/div>\n <span class=\"area-count\">2 publications<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"area-card\">\n <div class=\"area-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polygon points=\"12 2 2 7 12 12 22 7 12 2\"\/><polyline points=\"2 17 12 22 22 17\"\/><polyline points=\"2 12 12 17 22 12\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <div class=\"area-title\">Political Philosophy<\/div>\n <div class=\"area-desc\">Foundational questions about democratic legitimacy, political obligation, and institutional design. Includes the adaptive demarchy model \u2014 a flexible framework for deliberative democracy under uncertainty.<\/div>\n <span class=\"area-count\">2 publications<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<section class=\"pubs-section\" aria-labelledby=\"pubs-heading\">\n <div class=\"pubs-inner\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Publications<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"pubs-heading\">Selected publications<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:520px;margin-bottom:0\">Click “Abstract” to expand any entry. Full text available via linked journals.<\/p>\n\n <div class=\"pubs-list\" id=\"pubsList\">\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"democracy\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Democratic communities of inquiry: Creating opportunities to develop citizenship<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Journal of Philosophy of Education<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2022<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Democracy<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>48 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">This paper argues that communities of philosophical inquiry (CPI) offer a powerful model for democratic education \u2014 one that goes beyond teaching political knowledge to developing the deliberative capacities that democratic citizenship actually requires. The paper examines the structural features of CPI (collaborative inquiry, shared epistemic norms, dialogic practice) and shows how they align with the demands of deliberative democracy. It concludes with practical recommendations for embedding CPI in secondary and tertiary curricula.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"philosophy\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Adaptive demarchy: a flexible model of deliberative democracy for an uncertain political context<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Philosophy & Public Affairs<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2021<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Democracy<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Philosophy<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>36 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Standard models of deliberative democracy assume relatively stable political conditions. This paper introduces adaptive demarchy \u2014 a modified sortition-based model that remains normatively robust under conditions of political uncertainty, polarisation, and rapid change. Unlike fixed citizens’ assembly models, adaptive demarchy incorporates feedback mechanisms, variable scope, and deliberative safeguards that allow it to function in fractured political environments. The model has direct applications for post-crisis democratic renewal.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"reasoning\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Rationality, bias, and prejudice: developing citizens’ ability to engage in inquiry<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Educational Philosophy and Theory<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2020<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Reasoning<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>29 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Cognitive bias literature has proliferated in recent decades, but its educational implications remain underexplored. This paper asks: given what we know about systematic biases in human reasoning, what should inquiry-based education look like? It argues that effective bias mitigation requires more than awareness \u2014 it requires structured practice in the cognitive habits that counteract motivated reasoning. The paper proposes a taxonomy of inquiry virtues and a corresponding pedagogical framework for developing them.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"democracy\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Philosophy for children as democratic preparation: re-evaluating the Lipman tradition<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Thinking: The Journal of Philosophy for Children<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2019<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Democracy<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>11 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Matthew Lipman’s Philosophy for Children programme is widely celebrated as a model for teaching reasoning. This paper revisits the political assumptions underlying Lipman’s approach and asks whether P4C adequately prepares students for the adversarial realities of democratic life \u2014 including deliberation with those who reason badly or in bad faith. It proposes modifications to the standard CPI model that make it more robust to these challenges without sacrificing its collaborative spirit.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"reasoning\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Teaching epistemic humility: the role of intellectual virtues in critical thinking curricula<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Journal of Curriculum Studies<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2018<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Reasoning<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>0 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Critical thinking curricula typically focus on logical skills \u2014 argument analysis, fallacy identification, evidence evaluation. This paper argues that an equally important but neglected component is the development of intellectual virtues: epistemic humility, intellectual courage, and open-mindedness. Drawing on virtue epistemology, the paper proposes an integrated curriculum model that combines skill instruction with virtue cultivation, with practical examples from tertiary critical thinking courses.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<section aria-labelledby=\"argmap-heading\">\n <div class=\"argmap-section\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Interactive feature<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"argmap-heading\">Argument map: democratic education<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:580px;margin-bottom:0\">This is the central argument from the democratic education research. Click any node to expand the reasoning. Switch between arguments to explore different claims.<\/p>\n <div class=\"argmap-container\">\n <div class=\"argmap-toolbar\">\n <span class=\"argmap-toolbar-label\">Argument:<\/span>\n <button class=\"map-btn active\" onclick=\"switchMap('cpi',this)\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M17 21v-2a4 4 0 00-4-4H5a4 4 0 00-4 4v2\"\/><circle cx=\"9\" cy=\"7\" r=\"4\"\/><\/svg>\n Communities of Inquiry\n <\/button>\n <button class=\"map-btn\" onclick=\"switchMap('demarchy',this)\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polygon points=\"12 2 2 7 12 12 22 7 12 2\"\/><\/svg>\n Adaptive Demarchy\n <\/button>\n <button class=\"map-btn\" onclick=\"switchMap('bias',this)\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><circle cx=\"12\" cy=\"12\" r=\"10\"\/><path d=\"M9.09 9a3 3 0 015.83 1c0 2-3 3-3 3\"\/><\/svg>\n Bias & Inquiry\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"argmap-canvas\" id=\"argmapCanvas\" aria-live=\"polite\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"argmap-legend\" aria-label=\"Legend\">\n <div class=\"legend-item\"><div class=\"legend-dot support\"><\/div> Supporting argument<\/div>\n <div class=\"legend-item\"><div class=\"legend-dot counter\"><\/div> Counterargument<\/div>\n <div class=\"legend-item\"><div class=\"legend-dot evidence\"><\/div> Evidence \/ example<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<section class=\"collab-section\" aria-labelledby=\"collab-heading\">\n <div class=\"collab-inner\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Work with me<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"collab-heading\">Research collaboration<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:560px;margin-bottom:0\">I’m actively interested in collaborative projects across education, philosophy, and democratic theory.<\/p>\n <div class=\"collab-grid\">\n <div class=\"collab-card\">\n <div class=\"collab-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 10v6M2 10l10-5 10 5-10 5z\"\/><path d=\"M6 12v5c3 3 9 3 12 0v-5\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <h3>Academic collaboration<\/h3>\n <p>Looking to co-author research on critical thinking pedagogy, deliberative democracy, or media literacy education. Particularly interested in empirical studies of inquiry-based learning outcomes.<\/p>\n <a href=\"luke-contact.html\" class=\"btn btn-primary\">\n <svg width=\"15\" height=\"15\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M4 4h16c1.1 0 2 .9 2 2v12c0 1.1-.9 2-2 2H4c-1.1 0-2-.9-2-2V6c0-1.1.9-2 2-2z\"\/><polyline points=\"22,6 12,13 2,6\"\/><\/svg>\n Propose a project\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"collab-card\">\n <div class=\"collab-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"3\" y=\"3\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" rx=\"2\"\/><line x1=\"3\" y1=\"9\" x2=\"21\" y2=\"9\"\/><line x1=\"9\" y1=\"21\" x2=\"9\" y2=\"9\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <h3>Curriculum consulting<\/h3>\n <p>Available to help schools, universities, and civic organisations design critical thinking and media literacy curricula. I’ve worked with institutions at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.<\/p>\n <a href=\"luke-contact.html\" class=\"btn btn-secondary\">\n <svg width=\"15\" height=\"15\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M4 4h16c1.1 0 2 .9 2 2v12c0 1.1-.9 2-2 2H4c-1.1 0-2,.9-2 2V6c0-1.1.9-2 2-2z\"\/><polyline points=\"22,6 12,13 2,6\"\/><\/svg>\n Discuss consulting\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n<\/main>\n\n<footer role=\"contentinfo\">\n <div class=\"footer-inner\">\n <div class=\"footer-logo\">Luke <span>Zaphir<\/span><\/div>\n <nav aria-label=\"Footer navigation\"><ul class=\"footer-links\"><li><a href=\"luke-home.html\">Home<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-about.html\">About<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-research.html\">Research<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-writing.html\">Writing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-contact.html\">Contact<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav>\n <div class=\"footer-copy\">\u00a9 2025 Luke Zaphir \u00b7 University of Queensland<\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/footer>\n\n<script>\nconst maps={\n cpi:{\n thesis:\"Communities of inquiry (CPI) are the best available model for developing democratic citizens\",\n supports:[\n {text:\"CPI develops deliberative habits through practice, not just knowledge\",detail:\"Students who engage in structured inquiry learn to ask better questions, suspend judgment, and consider opposing views \u2014 the exact capacities democratic participation requires.\"},\n {text:\"Shared epistemic norms create genuine collaborative reasoning\",detail:\"Unlike debate (which rewards performance) or discussion (which is often undirected), CPI creates norms where reasoning is accountable to the group \u2014 mirroring democratic deliberation.\"}\n ],\n counters:[\n {text:\"CPI may not prepare students for bad-faith interlocutors\",detail:\"A common objection: CPI assumes good faith among participants. In real democratic contexts, people often reason badly or dishonestly. This paper addresses this by proposing modified CPI structures.\"},\n {text:\"Classroom CPI may not transfer to political contexts\",detail:\"Transfer of learning is always uncertain. The paper acknowledges this and argues that transfer is more likely when CPI is explicitly designed around civic content and scenarios.\"}\n ],\n evidence:[\n {text:\"Empirical studies show CPI improves argumentative skills and perspective-taking\",detail:\"Research by Topping & Trickey (2007) and others shows measurable gains in reasoning ability, perspective-taking, and cooperative dispositions after sustained CPI engagement.\"},\n {text:\"Deliberative polls show citizens reason better with structure and information\",detail:\"Fishkin's deliberative polling research demonstrates that when citizens are given structured information and deliberative time, they produce more considered, internally consistent judgments.\"}\n ]\n },\n demarchy:{\n thesis:\"Adaptive demarchy offers a more robust model of deliberative democracy than fixed sortition models\",\n supports:[\n {text:\"Adaptive feedback mechanisms allow the model to respond to political crises\",detail:\"Unlike fixed citizens' assemblies, adaptive demarchy incorporates structured review points that allow scope and composition to shift as political conditions change \u2014 crucial in polarised environments.\"},\n {text:\"Sortition removes incentives for strategic manipulation\",detail:\"Randomly selected citizens have no electoral incentives. This removes the systematic pressure toward performative rather than genuine deliberation that plagues elected bodies.\"}\n ],\n counters:[\n {text:\"Random selection may produce epistemically inadequate deliberators\",detail:\"If citizens are selected randomly, some may lack the knowledge or reasoning capacity to deliberate well. The model addresses this through structured information provision and facilitation \u2014 not sorting by expertise.\"},\n {text:\"Adaptive mechanisms could be captured by political actors\",detail:\"A legitimate concern: who decides when and how to adapt the model? The paper proposes independent oversight bodies and rule-bound trigger conditions to guard against capture.\"}\n ],\n evidence:[\n {text:\"Ireland's Citizens' Assembly produced high-quality, nuanced deliberation on abortion\",detail:\"The 2016\u201317 Irish Citizens' Assembly is widely regarded as a model of high-quality democratic deliberation by randomly selected citizens on a highly contentious issue.\"},\n {text:\"Political polarisation makes conventional deliberation less effective\",detail:\"Research by Klar, Krupnikov and Ryan (2018) shows that political polarisation actively degrades deliberative quality in partisan contexts \u2014 strengthening the case for sortition-based alternatives.\"}\n ]\n },\n bias:{\n thesis:\"Effective bias mitigation requires structured inquiry practice, not just bias awareness\",\n supports:[\n {text:\"Awareness of bias without practice has limited debiasing effect\",detail:\"Meta-analyses of bias training interventions show that declarative knowledge of cognitive biases rarely produces lasting changes in reasoning behaviour without deliberate practice in applying debiasing strategies.\"},\n {text:\"Inquiry virtues are teachable and transferable cognitive habits\",detail:\"Intellectual humility, open-mindedness, and epistemic courage are not fixed traits \u2014 they are dispositions that respond to instruction and practice. This grounds an optimistic educational programme.\"}\n ],\n counters:[\n {text:\"Motivated reasoning may be too deep-rooted for educational intervention\",detail:\"Some researchers argue that motivated reasoning is an evolved feature of cognition that education cannot substantially alter. This paper disputes this, drawing on evidence from virtue epistemology and deliberative learning research.\"},\n {text:\"Teaching inquiry skills may inadvertently sharpen motivated reasoning\",detail:\"A sophisticated objection: teaching people to reason better might make them more skilled at constructing motivated arguments. The paper argues that virtue-based instruction, which targets honesty rather than skill, guards against this.\"}\n ],\n evidence:[\n {text:\"Thinking dispositions are more predictive of reasoning quality than IQ\",detail:\"Research by Stanovich, West & Toplak (2016) consistently shows that thinking dispositions \u2014 including actively open-minded thinking \u2014 predict rational reasoning performance independently of cognitive ability.\"},\n {text:\"Structured academic controversy improves perspective-taking on contested issues\",detail:\"Johnson & Johnson's structured academic controversy research shows measurable improvements in perspective-taking and epistemic humility when students engage opposing views through structured formats.\"}\n ]\n }\n};\n\nlet currentMap='cpi';\n\nfunction renderMap(key){\n const m=maps[key];\n const c=document.getElementById('argmapCanvas');\n c.innerHTML=`\n <div class=\"arg-thesis\" role=\"region\" aria-label=\"Thesis\">\n <div class=\"arg-thesis-label\">Thesis<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-thesis-text\">${m.thesis}<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-connector\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Supporting arguments<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-row two\">\n ${m.supports.map(s=>`\n <button class=\"arg-node support\" onclick=\"toggleNode(this)\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n <div class=\"arg-node-type\"><svg width=\"12\" height=\"12\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg> Supporting argument<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-text\">${s.text}<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-detail\">${s.detail}<\/div>\n <\/button>`).join('')}\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-connector\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Counterarguments & responses<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-row two\">\n ${m.counters.map(s=>`\n <button class=\"arg-node counter\" onclick=\"toggleNode(this)\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n <div class=\"arg-node-type\"><svg width=\"12\" height=\"12\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><line x1=\"18\" y1=\"6\" x2=\"6\" y2=\"18\"\/><line x1=\"6\" y1=\"6\" x2=\"18\" y2=\"18\"\/><\/svg> Counterargument<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-text\">${s.text}<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-detail\">${s.detail}<\/div>\n <\/button>`).join('')}\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-connector\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Evidence & examples<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-row two\">\n ${m.evidence.map(s=>`\n <button class=\"arg-node evidence\" onclick=\"toggleNode(this)\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n <div class=\"arg-node-type\"><svg width=\"12\" height=\"12\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><circle cx=\"12\" cy=\"12\" r=\"10\"\/><line x1=\"12\" y1=\"8\" x2=\"12\" y2=\"12\"\/><line x1=\"12\" y1=\"16\" x2=\"12.01\" y2=\"16\"\/><\/svg> Evidence<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-text\">${s.text}<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-detail\">${s.detail}<\/div>\n <\/button>`).join('')}\n <\/div>\n `;\n}\n\nfunction switchMap(key,btn){\n document.querySelectorAll('.map-btn').forEach(b=>{b.classList.remove('active');b.setAttribute('aria-pressed','false')});\n btn.classList.add('active');btn.setAttribute('aria-pressed','true');\n currentMap=key;renderMap(key);\n}\n\nfunction toggleNode(node){\n const isOpen=node.classList.contains('expanded');\n node.closest('.arg-row').querySelectorAll('.arg-node').forEach(n=>{n.classList.remove('expanded');n.setAttribute('aria-expanded','false')});\n if(!isOpen){node.classList.add('expanded');node.setAttribute('aria-expanded','true')}\n}\n\nfunction togglePub(item){\n const isOpen=item.classList.contains('expanded');\n item.classList.toggle('expanded',!isOpen);\n const btn=item.querySelector('.pub-toggle');\n const abs=item.querySelector('.pub-abstract');\n btn.setAttribute('aria-expanded',String(!isOpen));\n abs.setAttribute('aria-hidden',String(isOpen));\n btn.querySelector('.pub-toggle-icon').textContent=isOpen?'\u25be':'\u25b4';\n}\n\nfunction filterPubs(cat,btn){\n document.querySelectorAll('.filter-btn').forEach(b=>{b.classList.remove('active');b.setAttribute('aria-pressed','false')});\n btn.classList.add('active');btn.setAttribute('aria-pressed','true');\n document.querySelectorAll('.pub-item').forEach(item=>{\n item.classList.toggle('hidden',cat!=='all'&&item.dataset.cat!==cat);\n });\n}\n\nrenderMap('cpi');\n<\/script>\n<\/body>\n<\/html>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Research \u2014 Luke Zaphir Skip to main content Luke Zaphir Home About Research Writing Contact Home About Research Writing Contact Research & publications Thinking carefullyabout democracyand reasoning. My research sits at the intersection of political philosophy, education theory, and epistemology \u2014 asking what kind of reasoning a healthy democracy actually needs, and how we develop […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-19","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=19"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":60,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19\/revisions\/60"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=19"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}

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height=\"16\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\"><path d=\"M11 4H4a2 2 0 00-2 2v14a2 2 0 002 2h14a2 2 0 002-2v-7\"\/><path d=\"M18.5 2.5a2.121 2.121 0 013 3L12 15l-4 1 1-4 9.5-9.5z\"\/><\/svg>Writing<\/a>\n <a href=\"luke-contact.html\"><svg width=\"16\" height=\"16\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\"><path d=\"M4 4h16c1.1 0 2 .9 2 2v12c0 1.1-.9 2-2 2H4c-1.1 0-2-.9-2-2V6c0-1.1.9-2 2-2z\"\/><polyline points=\"22,6 12,13 2,6\"\/><\/svg>Contact<\/a>\n<\/nav>\n\n<main id=\"main\">\n\n\n<section class=\"research-hero\" aria-labelledby=\"research-h1\">\n <div class=\"research-hero-inner\">\n <div class=\"hero-eyebrow\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M2 3h6a4 4 0 014 4v14a3 3 0 00-3-3H2z\"\/><path d=\"M22 3h-6a4 4 0 00-4 4v14a3 3 0 013-3h7z\"\/><\/svg>\n Research & publications\n <\/div>\n <h1 id=\"research-h1\">Thinking carefully<br>about <em>democracy<\/em><br>and reasoning.<\/h1>\n <p class=\"research-hero-sub\">My research sits at the intersection of political philosophy, education theory, and epistemology \u2014 asking what kind of reasoning a healthy democracy actually needs, and how we develop it.<\/p>\n <div class=\"research-stats\" role=\"list\">\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">124+<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">Google Scholar citations<\/div><\/div>\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">3<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">Core research areas<\/div><\/div>\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">PhD<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">University of Queensland<\/div><\/div>\n <div class=\"res-stat\" role=\"listitem\"><div class=\"res-stat-num\">2024<\/div><div class=\"res-stat-label\">UQ Teaching commendation<\/div><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<div class=\"filter-bar\" role=\"search\" aria-label=\"Filter publications\">\n <div class=\"filter-inner\">\n <span class=\"filter-label\">Filter:<\/span>\n <button class=\"filter-btn active\" onclick=\"filterPubs('all',this)\" aria-pressed=\"true\">All<\/button>\n <button class=\"filter-btn\" onclick=\"filterPubs('democracy',this)\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Democratic Education<\/button>\n <button class=\"filter-btn\" onclick=\"filterPubs('reasoning',this)\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Reasoning & Inquiry<\/button>\n <button class=\"filter-btn\" onclick=\"filterPubs('philosophy',this)\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Political Philosophy<\/button>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<section aria-labelledby=\"areas-heading\">\n <div class=\"areas-section\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Research areas<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"areas-heading\">Three interconnected questions<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:560px;margin-bottom:0\">Each area of research builds on the others \u2014 together they form a coherent project about reasoning, democracy, and education.<\/p>\n <div class=\"areas-grid\">\n <div class=\"area-card\">\n <div class=\"area-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M17 21v-2a4 4 0 00-4-4H5a4 4 0 00-4 4v2\"\/><circle cx=\"9\" cy=\"7\" r=\"4\"\/><path d=\"M23 21v-2a4 4 0 00-3-3.87\"\/><path d=\"M16 3.13a4 4 0 010 7.75\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <div class=\"area-title\">Democratic Education<\/div>\n <div class=\"area-desc\">How deliberative structures \u2014 communities of inquiry, citizens’ assemblies \u2014 build the cognitive capacities required for genuine democratic participation. Research focuses on both theory and classroom implementation.<\/div>\n <span class=\"area-count\">3 publications<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"area-card\">\n <div class=\"area-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><circle cx=\"12\" cy=\"12\" r=\"10\"\/><path d=\"M9.09 9a3 3 0 015.83 1c0 2-3 3-3 3\"\/><line x1=\"12\" y1=\"17\" x2=\"12.01\" y2=\"17\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <div class=\"area-title\">Reasoning & Inquiry<\/div>\n <div class=\"area-desc\">What does good reasoning actually look like in practice? Exploring rationality, bias, prejudice, and how explicit instruction in inquiry methods can develop citizens’ ability to think more honestly.<\/div>\n <span class=\"area-count\">2 publications<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"area-card\">\n <div class=\"area-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polygon points=\"12 2 2 7 12 12 22 7 12 2\"\/><polyline points=\"2 17 12 22 22 17\"\/><polyline points=\"2 12 12 17 22 12\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <div class=\"area-title\">Political Philosophy<\/div>\n <div class=\"area-desc\">Foundational questions about democratic legitimacy, political obligation, and institutional design. Includes the adaptive demarchy model \u2014 a flexible framework for deliberative democracy under uncertainty.<\/div>\n <span class=\"area-count\">2 publications<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<section class=\"pubs-section\" aria-labelledby=\"pubs-heading\">\n <div class=\"pubs-inner\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Publications<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"pubs-heading\">Selected publications<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:520px;margin-bottom:0\">Click “Abstract” to expand any entry. Full text available via linked journals.<\/p>\n\n <div class=\"pubs-list\" id=\"pubsList\">\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"democracy\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Democratic communities of inquiry: Creating opportunities to develop citizenship<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Journal of Philosophy of Education<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2022<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Democracy<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>48 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span>\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">This paper argues that communities of philosophical inquiry (CPI) offer a powerful model for democratic education \u2014 one that goes beyond teaching political knowledge to developing the deliberative capacities that democratic citizenship actually requires. The paper examines the structural features of CPI (collaborative inquiry, shared epistemic norms, dialogic practice) and shows how they align with the demands of deliberative democracy. It concludes with practical recommendations for embedding CPI in secondary and tertiary curricula.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"philosophy\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Adaptive demarchy: a flexible model of deliberative democracy for an uncertain political context<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Philosophy & Public Affairs<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2021<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Democracy<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Philosophy<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>36 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Standard models of deliberative democracy assume relatively stable political conditions. This paper introduces adaptive demarchy \u2014 a modified sortition-based model that remains normatively robust under conditions of political uncertainty, polarisation, and rapid change. Unlike fixed citizens’ assembly models, adaptive demarchy incorporates feedback mechanisms, variable scope, and deliberative safeguards that allow it to function in fractured political environments. The model has direct applications for post-crisis democratic renewal.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"reasoning\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Rationality, bias, and prejudice: developing citizens’ ability to engage in inquiry<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Educational Philosophy and Theory<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2020<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Reasoning<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>29 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Cognitive bias literature has proliferated in recent decades, but its educational implications remain underexplored. This paper asks: given what we know about systematic biases in human reasoning, what should inquiry-based education look like? It argues that effective bias mitigation requires more than awareness \u2014 it requires structured practice in the cognitive habits that counteract motivated reasoning. The paper proposes a taxonomy of inquiry virtues and a corresponding pedagogical framework for developing them.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"democracy\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Philosophy for children as democratic preparation: re-evaluating the Lipman tradition<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Thinking: The Journal of Philosophy for Children<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2019<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Democracy<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>11 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Matthew Lipman’s Philosophy for Children programme is widely celebrated as a model for teaching reasoning. This paper revisits the political assumptions underlying Lipman’s approach and asks whether P4C adequately prepares students for the adversarial realities of democratic life \u2014 including deliberation with those who reason badly or in bad faith. It proposes modifications to the standard CPI model that make it more robust to these challenges without sacrificing its collaborative spirit.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pub-item\" data-cat=\"reasoning\" tabindex=\"0\">\n <div class=\"pub-header\">\n <div>\n <div class=\"pub-title\">Teaching epistemic humility: the role of intellectual virtues in critical thinking curricula<\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-meta\">\n <span class=\"pub-journal\">Journal of Curriculum Studies<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-year\">2018<\/span>\n <span class=\"pub-tag\">Reasoning<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-right\">\n <div class=\"pub-cites\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M21 15a2 2 0 01-2 2H7l-4 4V5a2 2 0 012-2h14a2 2 0 012 2z\"\/><\/svg>0 citations<\/div>\n <button class=\"pub-toggle\" onclick=\"togglePub(this.closest('.pub-item'))\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Abstract <span class=\"pub-toggle-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u25be<\/span><\/button>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pub-abstract\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Critical thinking curricula typically focus on logical skills \u2014 argument analysis, fallacy identification, evidence evaluation. This paper argues that an equally important but neglected component is the development of intellectual virtues: epistemic humility, intellectual courage, and open-mindedness. Drawing on virtue epistemology, the paper proposes an integrated curriculum model that combines skill instruction with virtue cultivation, with practical examples from tertiary critical thinking courses.<\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<section aria-labelledby=\"argmap-heading\">\n <div class=\"argmap-section\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Interactive feature<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"argmap-heading\">Argument map: democratic education<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:580px;margin-bottom:0\">This is the central argument from the democratic education research. Click any node to expand the reasoning. Switch between arguments to explore different claims.<\/p>\n <div class=\"argmap-container\">\n <div class=\"argmap-toolbar\">\n <span class=\"argmap-toolbar-label\">Argument:<\/span>\n <button class=\"map-btn active\" onclick=\"switchMap('cpi',this)\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M17 21v-2a4 4 0 00-4-4H5a4 4 0 00-4 4v2\"\/><circle cx=\"9\" cy=\"7\" r=\"4\"\/><\/svg>\n Communities of Inquiry\n <\/button>\n <button class=\"map-btn\" onclick=\"switchMap('demarchy',this)\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polygon points=\"12 2 2 7 12 12 22 7 12 2\"\/><\/svg>\n Adaptive Demarchy\n <\/button>\n <button class=\"map-btn\" onclick=\"switchMap('bias',this)\">\n <svg width=\"13\" height=\"13\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><circle cx=\"12\" cy=\"12\" r=\"10\"\/><path d=\"M9.09 9a3 3 0 015.83 1c0 2-3 3-3 3\"\/><\/svg>\n Bias & Inquiry\n <\/button>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"argmap-canvas\" id=\"argmapCanvas\" aria-live=\"polite\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"argmap-legend\" aria-label=\"Legend\">\n <div class=\"legend-item\"><div class=\"legend-dot support\"><\/div> Supporting argument<\/div>\n <div class=\"legend-item\"><div class=\"legend-dot counter\"><\/div> Counterargument<\/div>\n <div class=\"legend-item\"><div class=\"legend-dot evidence\"><\/div> Evidence \/ example<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<section class=\"collab-section\" aria-labelledby=\"collab-heading\">\n <div class=\"collab-inner\">\n <div class=\"section-label\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Work with me<\/div>\n <h2 id=\"collab-heading\">Research collaboration<\/h2>\n <p style=\"color:var(--text-mid);font-size:.95rem;max-width:560px;margin-bottom:0\">I’m actively interested in collaborative projects across education, philosophy, and democratic theory.<\/p>\n <div class=\"collab-grid\">\n <div class=\"collab-card\">\n <div class=\"collab-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M22 10v6M2 10l10-5 10 5-10 5z\"\/><path d=\"M6 12v5c3 3 9 3 12 0v-5\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <h3>Academic collaboration<\/h3>\n <p>Looking to co-author research on critical thinking pedagogy, deliberative democracy, or media literacy education. Particularly interested in empirical studies of inquiry-based learning outcomes.<\/p>\n <a href=\"luke-contact.html\" class=\"btn btn-primary\">\n <svg width=\"15\" height=\"15\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M4 4h16c1.1 0 2 .9 2 2v12c0 1.1-.9 2-2 2H4c-1.1 0-2-.9-2-2V6c0-1.1.9-2 2-2z\"\/><polyline points=\"22,6 12,13 2,6\"\/><\/svg>\n Propose a project\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"collab-card\">\n <div class=\"collab-icon\"><svg viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><rect x=\"3\" y=\"3\" width=\"18\" height=\"18\" rx=\"2\"\/><line x1=\"3\" y1=\"9\" x2=\"21\" y2=\"9\"\/><line x1=\"9\" y1=\"21\" x2=\"9\" y2=\"9\"\/><\/svg><\/div>\n <h3>Curriculum consulting<\/h3>\n <p>Available to help schools, universities, and civic organisations design critical thinking and media literacy curricula. I’ve worked with institutions at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.<\/p>\n <a href=\"luke-contact.html\" class=\"btn btn-secondary\">\n <svg width=\"15\" height=\"15\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M4 4h16c1.1 0 2 .9 2 2v12c0 1.1-.9 2-2 2H4c-1.1 0-2,.9-2 2V6c0-1.1.9-2 2-2z\"\/><polyline points=\"22,6 12,13 2,6\"\/><\/svg>\n Discuss consulting\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n<\/main>\n\n<footer role=\"contentinfo\">\n <div class=\"footer-inner\">\n <div class=\"footer-logo\">Luke <span>Zaphir<\/span><\/div>\n <nav aria-label=\"Footer navigation\"><ul class=\"footer-links\"><li><a href=\"luke-home.html\">Home<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-about.html\">About<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-research.html\">Research<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-writing.html\">Writing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"luke-contact.html\">Contact<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav>\n <div class=\"footer-copy\">\u00a9 2025 Luke Zaphir \u00b7 University of Queensland<\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/footer>\n\n<script>\nconst maps={\n cpi:{\n thesis:\"Communities of inquiry (CPI) are the best available model for developing democratic citizens\",\n supports:[\n {text:\"CPI develops deliberative habits through practice, not just knowledge\",detail:\"Students who engage in structured inquiry learn to ask better questions, suspend judgment, and consider opposing views \u2014 the exact capacities democratic participation requires.\"},\n {text:\"Shared epistemic norms create genuine collaborative reasoning\",detail:\"Unlike debate (which rewards performance) or discussion (which is often undirected), CPI creates norms where reasoning is accountable to the group \u2014 mirroring democratic deliberation.\"}\n ],\n counters:[\n {text:\"CPI may not prepare students for bad-faith interlocutors\",detail:\"A common objection: CPI assumes good faith among participants. In real democratic contexts, people often reason badly or dishonestly. This paper addresses this by proposing modified CPI structures.\"},\n {text:\"Classroom CPI may not transfer to political contexts\",detail:\"Transfer of learning is always uncertain. The paper acknowledges this and argues that transfer is more likely when CPI is explicitly designed around civic content and scenarios.\"}\n ],\n evidence:[\n {text:\"Empirical studies show CPI improves argumentative skills and perspective-taking\",detail:\"Research by Topping & Trickey (2007) and others shows measurable gains in reasoning ability, perspective-taking, and cooperative dispositions after sustained CPI engagement.\"},\n {text:\"Deliberative polls show citizens reason better with structure and information\",detail:\"Fishkin's deliberative polling research demonstrates that when citizens are given structured information and deliberative time, they produce more considered, internally consistent judgments.\"}\n ]\n },\n demarchy:{\n thesis:\"Adaptive demarchy offers a more robust model of deliberative democracy than fixed sortition models\",\n supports:[\n {text:\"Adaptive feedback mechanisms allow the model to respond to political crises\",detail:\"Unlike fixed citizens' assemblies, adaptive demarchy incorporates structured review points that allow scope and composition to shift as political conditions change \u2014 crucial in polarised environments.\"},\n {text:\"Sortition removes incentives for strategic manipulation\",detail:\"Randomly selected citizens have no electoral incentives. This removes the systematic pressure toward performative rather than genuine deliberation that plagues elected bodies.\"}\n ],\n counters:[\n {text:\"Random selection may produce epistemically inadequate deliberators\",detail:\"If citizens are selected randomly, some may lack the knowledge or reasoning capacity to deliberate well. The model addresses this through structured information provision and facilitation \u2014 not sorting by expertise.\"},\n {text:\"Adaptive mechanisms could be captured by political actors\",detail:\"A legitimate concern: who decides when and how to adapt the model? The paper proposes independent oversight bodies and rule-bound trigger conditions to guard against capture.\"}\n ],\n evidence:[\n {text:\"Ireland's Citizens' Assembly produced high-quality, nuanced deliberation on abortion\",detail:\"The 2016\u201317 Irish Citizens' Assembly is widely regarded as a model of high-quality democratic deliberation by randomly selected citizens on a highly contentious issue.\"},\n {text:\"Political polarisation makes conventional deliberation less effective\",detail:\"Research by Klar, Krupnikov and Ryan (2018) shows that political polarisation actively degrades deliberative quality in partisan contexts \u2014 strengthening the case for sortition-based alternatives.\"}\n ]\n },\n bias:{\n thesis:\"Effective bias mitigation requires structured inquiry practice, not just bias awareness\",\n supports:[\n {text:\"Awareness of bias without practice has limited debiasing effect\",detail:\"Meta-analyses of bias training interventions show that declarative knowledge of cognitive biases rarely produces lasting changes in reasoning behaviour without deliberate practice in applying debiasing strategies.\"},\n {text:\"Inquiry virtues are teachable and transferable cognitive habits\",detail:\"Intellectual humility, open-mindedness, and epistemic courage are not fixed traits \u2014 they are dispositions that respond to instruction and practice. This grounds an optimistic educational programme.\"}\n ],\n counters:[\n {text:\"Motivated reasoning may be too deep-rooted for educational intervention\",detail:\"Some researchers argue that motivated reasoning is an evolved feature of cognition that education cannot substantially alter. This paper disputes this, drawing on evidence from virtue epistemology and deliberative learning research.\"},\n {text:\"Teaching inquiry skills may inadvertently sharpen motivated reasoning\",detail:\"A sophisticated objection: teaching people to reason better might make them more skilled at constructing motivated arguments. The paper argues that virtue-based instruction, which targets honesty rather than skill, guards against this.\"}\n ],\n evidence:[\n {text:\"Thinking dispositions are more predictive of reasoning quality than IQ\",detail:\"Research by Stanovich, West & Toplak (2016) consistently shows that thinking dispositions \u2014 including actively open-minded thinking \u2014 predict rational reasoning performance independently of cognitive ability.\"},\n {text:\"Structured academic controversy improves perspective-taking on contested issues\",detail:\"Johnson & Johnson's structured academic controversy research shows measurable improvements in perspective-taking and epistemic humility when students engage opposing views through structured formats.\"}\n ]\n }\n};\n\nlet currentMap='cpi';\n\nfunction renderMap(key){\n const m=maps[key];\n const c=document.getElementById('argmapCanvas');\n c.innerHTML=`\n <div class=\"arg-thesis\" role=\"region\" aria-label=\"Thesis\">\n <div class=\"arg-thesis-label\">Thesis<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-thesis-text\">${m.thesis}<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-connector\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Supporting arguments<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-row two\">\n ${m.supports.map(s=>`\n <button class=\"arg-node support\" onclick=\"toggleNode(this)\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n <div class=\"arg-node-type\"><svg width=\"12\" height=\"12\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><polyline points=\"20 6 9 17 4 12\"\/><\/svg> Supporting argument<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-text\">${s.text}<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-detail\">${s.detail}<\/div>\n <\/button>`).join('')}\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-connector\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Counterarguments & responses<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-row two\">\n ${m.counters.map(s=>`\n <button class=\"arg-node counter\" onclick=\"toggleNode(this)\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n <div class=\"arg-node-type\"><svg width=\"12\" height=\"12\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><line x1=\"18\" y1=\"6\" x2=\"6\" y2=\"18\"\/><line x1=\"6\" y1=\"6\" x2=\"18\" y2=\"18\"\/><\/svg> Counterargument<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-text\">${s.text}<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-detail\">${s.detail}<\/div>\n <\/button>`).join('')}\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-connector\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Evidence & examples<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-row two\">\n ${m.evidence.map(s=>`\n <button class=\"arg-node evidence\" onclick=\"toggleNode(this)\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n <div class=\"arg-node-type\"><svg width=\"12\" height=\"12\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2.5\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><circle cx=\"12\" cy=\"12\" r=\"10\"\/><line x1=\"12\" y1=\"8\" x2=\"12\" y2=\"12\"\/><line x1=\"12\" y1=\"16\" x2=\"12.01\" y2=\"16\"\/><\/svg> Evidence<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-text\">${s.text}<\/div>\n <div class=\"arg-node-detail\">${s.detail}<\/div>\n <\/button>`).join('')}\n <\/div>\n `;\n}\n\nfunction switchMap(key,btn){\n document.querySelectorAll('.map-btn').forEach(b=>{b.classList.remove('active');b.setAttribute('aria-pressed','false')});\n btn.classList.add('active');btn.setAttribute('aria-pressed','true');\n currentMap=key;renderMap(key);\n}\n\nfunction toggleNode(node){\n const isOpen=node.classList.contains('expanded');\n node.closest('.arg-row').querySelectorAll('.arg-node').forEach(n=>{n.classList.remove('expanded');n.setAttribute('aria-expanded','false')});\n if(!isOpen){node.classList.add('expanded');node.setAttribute('aria-expanded','true')}\n}\n\nfunction togglePub(item){\n const isOpen=item.classList.contains('expanded');\n item.classList.toggle('expanded',!isOpen);\n const btn=item.querySelector('.pub-toggle');\n const abs=item.querySelector('.pub-abstract');\n btn.setAttribute('aria-expanded',String(!isOpen));\n abs.setAttribute('aria-hidden',String(isOpen));\n btn.querySelector('.pub-toggle-icon').textContent=isOpen?'\u25be':'\u25b4';\n}\n\nfunction filterPubs(cat,btn){\n document.querySelectorAll('.filter-btn').forEach(b=>{b.classList.remove('active');b.setAttribute('aria-pressed','false')});\n btn.classList.add('active');btn.setAttribute('aria-pressed','true');\n document.querySelectorAll('.pub-item').forEach(item=>{\n item.classList.toggle('hidden',cat!=='all'&&item.dataset.cat!==cat);\n });\n}\n\nrenderMap('cpi');\n<\/script>\n<\/body>\n<\/html>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Research \u2014 Luke Zaphir Skip to main content Luke Zaphir Home About Research Writing Contact Home About Research Writing Contact Research & publications Thinking carefullyabout democracyand reasoning. My research sits at the intersection of political philosophy, education theory, and epistemology \u2014 asking what kind of reasoning a healthy democracy actually needs, and how we develop […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-19","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=19"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":60,"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19\/revisions\/60"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/lukezaphir.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=19"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}